Animal Care & Nursing Free guide

Physical Examination and Normal Vital Signs by Species

Animal Care and Nursing (D5 B; K28) 15 min read, 3,361 words Last verified

Learn the physical exam a veterinary technician runs every day: history, TPR, mucous membranes, CRT, hydration, auscultation and body condition scoring, with sourced normal ranges for 12 species.

Introduction

The physical examination is one of the jobs a veterinary technician does most often. You take the history, watch the patient, measure temperature, pulse and respiration (TPR), check the gums and hydration, listen to the chest and score body condition. The veterinarian uses your numbers to make decisions, so they must be accurate, recorded with units, and compared against the right species range.

The World Small Animal Veterinary Association (WSAVA) treats five assessments as vital signs in every small animal exam: temperature, pulse, respiration, pain and nutrition.9 This guide covers the first three in detail, plus nutrition through body and muscle condition scoring. Pain scoring has its own guide.

Key facts

  • Merck reference ranges for rectal temperature: dog 37.5 to 39.2 °C (99.5 to 102.5 °F); cat 38.1 to 39.2 °C (100.5 to 102.5 °F).1
  • Published dog and cat heart and respiratory rate ranges differ between references, and excitement and stress raise heart and respiratory rates (and a hot environment raises temperature) without disease.5
  • Normal capillary refill time (CRT) is 1 to 2 seconds. Longer than 2 seconds suggests poor perfusion or vasoconstriction; under 1 second suggests a hyperdynamic state.4
  • Pink mucous membranes are normal; pale or white suggests anemia or shock; cyanotic suggests severe hypoxemia; yellow suggests increased bilirubin.4
  • A heartbeat with no matching pulse is a pulse deficit and usually means an arrhythmia.414
  • On the 9-point body condition score (BCS), the goal for most pets is 4 to 5 of 9. Always record the denominator.9
  • Muscle condition score (MCS) is graded normal, mild, moderate or severe loss, and an overweight pet can still have muscle loss.11

How the VTNE tests this

  • Document and manage patient evaluations (Domain 5 Task B, which lists physical, behavioral, nutritional and mentation status; K28 "Animal assessment and monitoring techniques, excluding anesthetic monitoring").29 Expect "is this value normal for this species?"
  • Interpret a finding: a CRT, a mucous membrane color, a pulse quality or a dehydration estimate, and pick the right next step.
  • Locate: where to place the stethoscope for each valve area, where to feel a pulse in a dog or a horse, which lymph nodes are palpable.
  • Calculate: a per-minute rate from a short count, a Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion, or a fluid deficit from a dehydration estimate (K13 covers fluid calculations).29
  • Score: assign a 9-point BCS or an MCS from a description (K31 Nutrition).29

Core concepts

History and signalment come first

Signalment identifies the patient, including age, breed and sex.14 The history then develops the presenting complaint: onset, duration, frequency, progression, what makes it better or worse, and any medication given and the response. A body systems review asks about attitude, appetite, weight change, water intake and urination, vomiting, diarrhea, coughing and sneezing. The general overview covers environment, travel, vaccination, diet, parasite control, past medical history and current medications.22

Look before you touch

The distant (observational) exam happens as you greet the patient. Note alertness, body condition, posture, gait, behavior, hair coat and respiratory rate. A respiratory rate counted now is a true resting rate, taken before handling excites the animal.35

Mentation

Mentation is the level of consciousness. Four levels are used: alert (normal), depressed (decreased response, drowsy, inattentive), stuporous (responds only to a painful stimulus) and comatose (no response to any stimulus).23 Merck also uses "obtunded" for a patient that is less responsive and sleepy but still arousable.4 Record the term, not a guess at the cause.

Temperature: fever is not the only cause of a high reading

Hyperthermia means any body temperature above the normal range. Fever is one form of hyperthermia, where the hypothalamic set point has been raised. Heatstroke and exercise cause hyperthermia without fever.26 That is why the technician records the context of every high reading: was the dog just walked in from a hot car, or has it been lying quietly in a cage?

Pulse and perfusion

The pulse you feel is the pulse pressure: systolic minus diastolic pressure. In dogs and cats it is usually felt at the femoral artery; in horses, the facial artery. A weak pulse usually reflects low systolic pressure, as in heart failure or hypovolemic shock, but it can also come from poor technique or an obese or heavily muscled patient. A bounding pulse usually reflects a low diastolic pressure.14 Merck's triage table links a bounding pulse to the hyperdynamic (compensatory) stage of shock and a weak or absent pulse to decreased cardiac output or vasoconstriction.4

Perfusion is also judged from mucous membrane (MM) color and CRT. The CRT test is quick but not very sensitive, so a normal CRT does not prove normal perfusion.7

Table 1. Mucous membrane and perfusion findings, and what they suggest
FindingWhat it suggests
Pink MMNormal packed cell volume (PCV) and adequate perfusion
Pale or white MMAnemia or shock
Cyanotic (blue) or muddy MMSevere hypoxemia or decompensatory shock
Yellow (icteric) MMIncreased serum bilirubin from liver disease or hemolysis
Petechiae (pinpoint bleeds)Possible low platelet count or platelet dysfunction
Dry or tacky MMDehydration, although panting and nausea also change moisture
CRT 1 to 2 secondsNormal perfusion
CRT over 2 secondsPoor perfusion or peripheral vasoconstriction
CRT under 1 secondHyperdynamic state: fever, heatstroke, distributive shock or early compensatory shock

Sources: Merck, Initial Triage and Resuscitation of Small Animal Emergency Patients4; Guelph Clinical Medicine 1, Head and Neck7; Merck, The Fluid Resuscitation Plan in Animals.8

In horses, Merck adds that gray membranes indicate poor tissue blood flow and red membranes can indicate shock.33

Hydration

Dehydration is a loss of fluid from the interstitial and intracellular spaces. It is estimated from physical findings, and the estimate is always partly subjective.8 Skin tenting is checked over the interscapular area: skin that does not spring straight back suggests dehydration, but the test is insensitive.24

Table 2. Estimating percent dehydration from physical findings
EstimateFindings
4 to 5%Semidry oral MM, normal skin turgor, eyes normally moist
6 to 7%Dry oral MM, mild loss of skin turgor, eyes still moist
8 to 10%Dry MM, considerable loss of skin turgor, retracted eyes, acute weight loss, weak rapid pulses
12% or moreVery dry MM, complete loss of skin turgor, severely retracted and dull eyes, possible altered consciousness, thready weak pulses

Source: Merck, The Fluid Resuscitation Plan in Animals.8

These signs mislead in some patients. Emaciated and geriatric animals can have poor skin turgor and sunken eyes despite normal hydration. Very young animals have more elastic skin. Nauseated animals may drool, which keeps the gums moist.8

Body and muscle condition

BCS measures body fat. Scales of 5, 6, 7 or 9 points exist; WSAVA uses the 9-point scale, where most pets should be 4 to 5 of 9.9 On the 5-point scale, ideal is 3. Write the scale in the record, for example 4/9 or 4/5, so nobody confuses the two.13 You assess how easily the ribs are felt, the waist seen from above, the abdominal tuck seen from the side and the fat over the tail base.12 On the WSAVA dog chart, a 5 has ribs palpable without excess fat, a waist behind the ribs from above and a tucked abdomen from the side; a 7 has ribs palpable only with difficulty under heavy fat, fat over the lumbar area and tail base, and a waist that is absent or barely visible.10

MCS measures muscle, not fat. Feel over the spine, scapulae, skull and wings of the ilia. Muscle loss usually shows first in the epaxial muscles beside the spine. Grade it as normal, mild, moderate or severe loss, and score both BCS and MCS at every visit.11

Body condition seen from above: too thin, ideal and overweight dogs on the 9-point scale BCS 1 to 3Too thinRibs easily seen or felt,no fat cover. Waist andtuck exaggerated.BCS 4 to 5IdealRibs felt under slight fat.Waist seen behind ribs.Abdominal tuck present.BCS 6 to 9Overweight to obeseFat cover over the ribsincreases. The waist fades,then disappears.Dashed line: level of the waist
Figure 3. Body condition seen from above. The waist behind the ribs is the quickest visual check, but always confirm by feeling the ribs. Descriptions follow the WSAVA dog chart and the Merck BCS parameters; this is a simplified original drawing, not the WSAVA chart.

Procedure: a nose-to-tail exam with TPR

  1. Prepare. Check the record for signalment, reason for visit and previous weights and vital signs. Have a stethoscope, watch with a second hand, thermometer, lubricant and gloves ready.
  2. Take the history from the client, following the structure above.22
  3. Observe from a distance: mentation, posture, gait and a resting respiratory rate.35
  4. Weigh the patient and record weight with units, BCS and MCS.9
  5. Head and neck. Look at eyes, ears and nose for discharge and symmetry. Open the mouth and check MM color and moisture, then press a fingertip on a pink, non-pigmented area of gum and count the CRT.7 Do not examine the mouth of an animal with neurological signs and an unknown rabies vaccination history.7
  6. Lymph nodes. Palpate the mandibular, superficial cervical (prescapular) and popliteal nodes for size, texture and pain. Normal nodes are soft and under 1 cm, often under 0.5 cm, in dogs and cats.36
  7. Heart. With the patient standing or sitting, in a quiet room, auscultate both sides of the chest (Figure 2). Count the rate. Hold the mouth closed if the dog is panting.6 Feel the femoral pulse at the same time; every heartbeat should have a pulse.17
  8. Lungs. Watch the breathing pattern first. Then listen in a grid of about 4 to 6 spots per side, and over the trachea to separate upper airway noise from lung sounds.17
  9. Skin, coat, abdomen and limbs. Run both hands over the whole body for masses, look for parasites and alopecia, and tent the skin over the shoulders.24
  10. Temperature. Insert a lubricated thermometer into the rectum and keep the tip in contact with the rectal wall.1831 In patients that resent it, such as ferrets, take it early, because struggling can raise the reading.30
  11. Record and report. Write each value with units, the method and the context. Use Figure 1 for anything outside the range.

Counting rates

A common shortcut is to count beats or breaths for 10 seconds and multiply by 6. One breath is one rise and fall of the chest.5 A short count multiplies any miscount by the same factor.

Auscultation

The diaphragm of the stethoscope picks up high-frequency sounds (most systolic murmurs, clicks and breath sounds); the bell picks up low-frequency sounds such as diastolic murmurs and gallops. Do not auscultate in lateral or dorsal recumbency, which can create false murmur-like sounds.6 The first heart sound (S1, closure of the AV valves) is loudest at the left apex, and the second (S2, closure of the semilunar valves) at the left base.16 Murmurs are graded 1 (very soft) to 6 (very loud, with a thrill, heard with the stethoscope just off the chest).16 Sinus arrhythmia is normal in dogs.14

Heart valve areas on the canine chest wall, left and right sides LEFT side: head to the left 12345678 PAM RIGHT side: head to the right 12345678 T Numbers are ribs. ICS = intercostal space. Dashed line =costochondral junction. Heavy bottom line = sternum.P pulmonic: left 2nd to 4th ICS, just above sternumA aortic: left 4th ICS, just above CCJM mitral: left 5th ICS at CCJ (left apex)T tricuspid: right 3rd to 5th ICS, near CCJ
Figure 2. Valve areas in the dog. Three are on the left (pulmonic, aortic and mitral) and one, the tricuspid, is on the right. The mitral area is at the left apex, where S1 is loudest. Positions follow the auscultation sites used by Lee and colleagues (2026). In cats these landmarks are less useful: murmurs are usually loudest along or just off the sternum.

Normal vital signs by species

Table 3. Resting reference ranges for adult animals (Merck reference guides unless marked)
SpeciesRectal temperatureHeart rate (bpm)Respiratory rate (breaths/min)
Dog37.5 to 39.2 °C (99.5 to 102.5 °F)70 to 12018 to 34
Cat38.1 to 39.2 °C (100.5 to 102.5 °F)120 to 14016 to 40
HorseMare 37.3 to 38.2 °C (99.1 to 100.8 °F); stallion 37.2 to 38.1 °C (99.0 to 100.6 °F)28 to 4010 to 14
Dairy cow38.0 to 39.3 °C (100.4 to 102.8 °F)48 to 8426 to 50
Beef cow36.7 to 39.1 °C (98.0 to 102.4 °F)Not listed (ox: 36 to 60)Not listed
Sheep38.3 to 39.9 °C (100.9 to 103.8 °F)70 to 8016 to 34
Goat38.5 to 39.7 °C (101.3 to 103.5 °F)70 to 80About 25 to 30 in cool conditions (b)
Pig38.7 to 39.8 °C (101.6 to 103.6 °F)70 to 12032 to 58
Rabbit38.6 to 40.1 °C (101.5 to 104.2 °F)180 to 35032 to 60 (c)
Ferret (a)100 to 103 °F (about 37.8 to 39.4 °C)200 to 25030 to 40
Guinea pig (a)38 to 39.5 °C (100.4 to 103.1 °F)200 to 35040 to 100
Chicken, adult40.6 to 43.0 °C (105.0 to 109.4 °F), daylight250 to 300Not listed; judge effort

Sources: Merck reference guides for rectal temperature, resting heart rate and resting respiratory rate123; (a) Merck "Ferrets at a Glance" and "Physiological Data for Guinea Pigs"1920; (b) Constable and colleagues, at the lower end of the thermoneutral zone27; (c) Harcourt-Brown, Textbook of Rabbit Medicine.21 The ferret Celsius values are converted from Merck's Fahrenheit range.

Why dog and cat ranges disagree

Different references give different numbers, and context changes all of them.5 The Merck reference guides are adapted from a physiology textbook (Dukes' Physiology of Domestic Animals, 2004), while the Merck triage table and the Guelph text are written for patients being examined in the clinic.24 Learn the pattern, and use your hospital's chosen reference consistently.

Table 4. Dog and cat ranges in three fetched sources
MeasureMerck reference guidesMerck triage tableGuelph Clinical Medicine 1
Dog heart rate (bpm)70 to 12070 to 120 (small dogs); 60 to 120 (large dogs); tachycardia above 18060 to 160
Cat heart rate (bpm)120 to 140150 to 220; tachycardia above 220120 to 240
Dog respiratory rate18 to 34Not given10 to 30
Cat respiratory rate16 to 40Not given24 to 42
Dog temperature37.5 to 39.2 °CNot given38.0 to 39.4 °C
Cat temperature38.1 to 39.2 °CNot given38.0 to 39.2 °C

Sources: Merck reference guides123; Merck triage4; Guelph, Vital Parameters and Hydration Assessment.5

Flowchart: an abnormal TPR

An abnormal reading is a prompt to act, not a diagnosis. Merck lists problems that warrant moving the patient to the treatment area for immediate veterinary evaluation regardless of the rest of the exam, including collapse, respiratory difficulty, paleness and weakness, seizures, heatstroke, hypothermia and a male cat that cannot urinate.4 For everything else, the first job is to rule out a measurement or context problem. The Emergency Triage study guide carries on from the red-flag branch.

Decision tree: what to do with a vital sign outside the reference range A temperature, pulse or respirationreading is outside the reference rangeRed flags present?collapse, hard breathing,pale or blue gumsAlert the vet now.Move the patient tothe treatment area.Stress, exercise, pantingor a hot room just beforethe reading?Let the patientsettle in a quietroom first.Repeat the reading with thesame method and siteStill outsidethe range?Record both readingsand the context.Carry on with the exam.Record value, units, timeand method. Report it to theveterinarian before the exam ends.Any red flag at any step goes straight to the veterinarian. YesNoYesNoNoYes
Figure 1. What the technician does with a reading outside the reference range. Red flags go straight to the veterinarian. Otherwise let the patient settle and repeat the reading by the same method, because stress, exercise and a hot room raise temperature, heart rate and respiratory rate on their own.

Species differences

  • Dog: small dogs have faster heart rates than large dogs.374 Sinus arrhythmia is normal.14
  • Cat: breath sounds can be very quiet or hard to hear in a normal cat.17 The dog valve areas are less useful; murmurs are usually loudest along or just off the sternum, and about 20 to 25% of feline murmurs are not linked to significant disease.16 If a rectal temperature is not possible, axillary temperature is preferred over the ear, but neither can be used interchangeably with rectal.31
  • Horse: feel the pulse at the facial artery. Second-degree AV block can be a normal finding.14 BCS also runs 1 to 9; 5 is moderate, and 7 or more is considered obese.34
  • Cattle: count the respiratory rate from outside the pen, watching the flank for at least 15 seconds, before you disturb the cow. Check MM color and CRT (under 2 seconds) on the vulvar membranes. Auscultate the rumen in the left paralumbar fossa: 1 to 2 contractions per minute is the reference range for adult cattle. The same Guelph protocol gives 10 to 30 breaths/min and 38.0 to 39.0 °C for adult cattle, lower than the Merck dairy cow figures in Table 3, so know which reference your hospital uses.18
  • Sheep and goats: in adult ruminants, a respiratory rate above 40 breaths per minute is panting, and it is the most practical sign of heat stress.27
  • Rabbit: rabbits breathe through the nose and do not mouth-breathe or pant effectively. A faster rate can reflect stress, pain, hyperthermia, infection or respiratory disease.21
  • Ferret: heart rate is rapid, often with a pronounced sinus arrhythmia, and subtle murmurs may be missed when the ferret is excited.30
  • Backyard poultry: a healthy bird is bright and alert, with no tail bobbing (a sign of increased respiratory effort). Give emergency care before the exam for bleeding, head trauma, seizures, open fractures, extreme respiratory difficulty or weakness. Assess body condition by feeling the breast muscles on each side of the keel bone.28

Calculation

1. Heart rate from a 10-second count. You count 21 beats in 10 seconds.

21 beats / 10 s × 60 s / 1 min = 21 × 6 = 126 beats/min.5

2. Celsius to Fahrenheit. A dog reads 39.5 °C. Use °F = (°C × 9/5) + 32.25

(39.5 × 9/5) + 32 = 71.1 + 32 = 103.1 °F, above the Merck dog range of 99.5 to 102.5 °F.1

3. Fluid deficit from a dehydration estimate. A 12 kg dog is estimated to be 8% dehydrated. Multiply body weight in kilograms by the percentage as a decimal.8

12 kg × 0.08 = 0.96 kg of water lost, which is 0.96 L (960 mL), since 1 kg of water is about 1 L.

  • Rabies risk. Do not open the mouth of an animal with neurological signs and an unknown rabies vaccination history.7
  • Record keeping. Record every value with units and method (rectal, axillary), the BCS with its denominator, and the context (panting, just walked in, struggling). The next person needs to compare like with like.13
  • Large animal safety. Take the respiratory rate and general inspection from outside the pen first, and consider restraint and facilities before you enter.18
  • Client education: body condition. A BCS of 4 to 5 of 9 may look too thin to some owners, so explain the score with the chart and let the owner feel the ribs.9

Common mistakes and exam traps

  • Calling a stressed cat tachycardic. A cat at 200 bpm in the exam room is below Merck's triage cut-off of 220 for tachycardia. Record it with the context.4
  • Reading a fast CRT as good news. Under 1 second suggests a hyperdynamic state, such as fever or early shock.4
  • Mixing up BCS scales. 3/5 and 5/9 both mean ideal. A score written without its denominator is useless.13
  • Assuming a normal BCS rules out wasting. Muscle loss can be present in an overweight pet.11
  • Trusting skin tent alone. Old, thin and very young patients give misleading results.8
  • Feeling for a femoral pulse in a horse. In dogs and cats the pulse is usually taken at the femoral artery; in horses, the facial artery is usually used.14

Quick review

  1. WSAVA vital assessments: temperature, pulse, respiration, pain and nutrition.
  2. Signalment (age, breed, sex) first; then the presenting complaint and history.
  3. Count the resting respiratory rate before you handle the patient.
  4. Dog 37.5 to 39.2 °C; cat 38.1 to 39.2 °C (Merck).
  5. Horse heart rate 28 to 40 bpm and respiratory rate 10 to 14 (Merck).
  6. CRT normal 1 to 2 seconds; over 2 is poor perfusion, under 1 is hyperdynamic.
  7. Pale means anemia or shock; blue means hypoxemia; yellow means bilirubin.
  8. Every heartbeat should have a femoral pulse; a missing pulse is a pulse deficit.
  9. Dog valves: P, A, M on the left (2nd to 4th, 4th, 5th ICS); T on the right (3rd to 5th ICS).
  10. Dehydration 6 to 7%: dry gums and mild loss of turgor; 8 to 10% adds sunken eyes and weak pulses.
  11. Ideal BCS is 4 to 5 of 9; record the scale and score MCS too.
  12. Fluid deficit (L) = body weight (kg) × dehydration as a decimal.

Test yourself

5 questions written for this guide. Pick an answer, then check it.

Question 1A healthy 4-year-old cat arrives for a wellness visit after a long car ride and is tense on the table. Rectal temperature is 38.6 °C, heart rate 200 bpm and respiratory rate 36 breaths/min. The cat is alert with pink gums. What should the technician do?

Show answer

Answer: C. Record the values and note that the cat was stressed during the exam

All three values fit a stressed but healthy cat: 38.6 °C is inside Merck's 38.1 to 39.2 °C, 36 breaths/min is inside 16 to 40, and Merck's triage table gives 150 to 220 bpm as a normal cat heart rate in the clinic (the resting physiology range of 120 to 140 bpm does not describe a tense cat on the exam table). Recording the context lets the next person compare like with like. A is wrong because Merck sets feline tachycardia above 220 bpm. B is wrong because ear (tympanic) readings cannot be used interchangeably with rectal readings in cats. D is wrong because 36 breaths/min is within the reference range and the cat has no red flags.

Source Initial Triage and Resuscitation of Small Animal Emergency Patients, Parameters to Evaluate During Triage, Merck Veterinary Manual

Question 2An 8 kg dog has semidry oral mucous membranes, normal skin turgor and moist eyes, and the veterinarian estimates 5% dehydration. Using body weight (kg) multiplied by percent dehydration as a decimal, what is the fluid deficit?

Show answer

Answer: A. 400 mL

8 kg x 0.05 = 0.4 L, which is 400 mL. These findings fit Merck's 4 to 5% band, and Merck gives this method with the example 12 kg x 0.08 = 0.96 L. B is wrong because it drops a decimal place (0.04 L). C is wrong because it multiplies by 0.5 (50%) instead of 0.05. D is wrong because it uses 10% instead of 5%.

Source The Fluid Resuscitation Plan in Animals, dehydration estimate and fluid deficit, Merck Veterinary Manual

Question 3A technician wants to listen over the tricuspid valve area of a standing dog. Where should the stethoscope be placed?

Show answer

Answer: D. Right 3rd to 5th intercostal space near the costochondral junction

The tricuspid valve is the one valve area on the right side of the chest, at the 3rd to 5th intercostal spaces near the costochondral junction. A is the mitral area (left apex). B is the aortic area. C is the pulmonic area.

Source Deep learning-driven automated detection of canine cardiac murmurs, Table 1 Auscultation sites, Vet Res Commun 2026

Question 4While checking capillary refill time on a 9-year-old dog, the technician notices that the gums and the whites of the eyes are yellow. What does this mucous membrane color suggest?

Show answer

Answer: B. An increased serum bilirubin concentration

Yellow (icteric) membranes indicate increased serum bilirubin, from liver disease or hemolysis, which the technician reports to the veterinarian. A matches cyanotic (blue) membranes. C matches pale, cyanotic or muddy membranes. D matches petechiae, not a yellow color.

Source Initial Triage and Resuscitation of Small Animal Emergency Patients, Parameters to Evaluate During Triage, Merck Veterinary Manual

Question 5On a 9-point scale, a dog's ribs can be felt only with difficulty under heavy fat, there are noticeable fat deposits over the lumbar area and the base of the tail, and the waist is absent or barely visible. Which body condition score fits best?

Show answer

Answer: A. 7/9

This is the WSAVA description of 7/9, an overweight dog. B is wrong because at 5/9 the ribs are palpable without excess fat and a waist is seen behind the ribs. C is wrong because at 3/9 the ribs are easily palpated with no palpable fat. D is wrong because 9/9 adds massive fat deposits over the thorax, spine and tail base, fat on the neck and limbs, and obvious abdominal distention.

Source Body Condition Score: Dog, World Small Animal Veterinary Association

0 of 5 answered

Practise this topic

Two questions from our VTNE practice bank on this topic.

Question 1A veterinary technician is assessing an adult horse and documents the following findings: HR 36 bpm, RR 12 breaths/min, rectal temperature 38.1°C. How should these findings be interpreted?

Show answer

Answer: B. All three values are within normal limits

Merck lists a resting heart rate of 28 to 40 bpm and a resting respiratory rate of 10 to 14 breaths/min for horses, and a rectal temperature of about 37.2 to 38.2°C (37.3 to 38.2°C in mares and 37.2 to 38.1°C in stallions). A heart rate of 36 bpm, respiratory rate of 12 breaths/min and temperature of 38.1°C therefore all fall within normal limits for an adult horse.

An equine heart rate of 36 bpm is not elevated, because it sits inside the 28 to 40 bpm resting range. A respiratory rate of 12 breaths/min sits in the middle of the normal range, so it is not elevated either. Students often apply small animal values to horses, which makes these normal equine numbers look low rather than high.

Source Resting Heart Rates (table), Merck Veterinary Manual
Resting Respiratory Rates (table), Merck Veterinary Manual
Normal Rectal Temperature Ranges (table), Merck Veterinary Manual

Practise all 13 questions on this topic Free account. Or try the free practice quiz.

Figure credits

References

  1. Fielder SE. Normal Rectal Temperature Ranges. Merck Veterinary Manual, Reference Guides. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/reference-values-and-conversion-tables/reference-guides/normal-rectal-temperature-ranges
  2. Fielder SE. Resting Heart Rates. Merck Veterinary Manual, Reference Guides. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/reference-values-and-conversion-tables/reference-guides/resting-heart-rates
  3. Fielder SE. Resting Respiratory Rates. Merck Veterinary Manual, Reference Guides. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/reference-values-and-conversion-tables/reference-guides/resting-respiratory-rates
  4. Linklater A. Initial Triage and Resuscitation of Small Animal Emergency Patients (Primary Survey). Merck Veterinary Manual, Professional Version. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/emergency-medicine-and-critical-care/evaluation-and-initial-treatment-of-small-animal-emergency-patients/initial-triage-and-resuscitation-of-small-animal-emergency-patients
  5. Blois S, et al. Vital Parameters. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/vital-parameters/
  6. Blois S, et al. Introduction to the Cardiovascular Examination. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/introduction-to-the-cardiovascular-examination/
  7. Blois S, et al. Head and Neck. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/head-and-neck/
  8. Linklater A, Hanson KR. The Fluid Resuscitation Plan in Animals. Merck Veterinary Manual, Professional Version. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/therapeutics/fluid-therapy/the-fluid-resuscitation-plan-in-animals
  9. WSAVA Nutritional Assessment Guidelines Task Force (Freeman L, Becvarova I, Cave N, et al.). WSAVA Nutritional Assessment Guidelines. J Small Anim Pract. 2011. wsava.org (accessed 2026-10-30) wsava.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/WSAVA-Nutrition-Assessment-Guidelines-2011-JSAP.pdf
  10. World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Body Condition Score: Dog (chart). wsava.org (accessed 2026-10-30) wsava.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Body-Condition-Score-Dog.pdf
  11. World Small Animal Veterinary Association, Tufts University. Muscle Condition Score (chart). wsava.org (accessed 2026-10-30) wsava.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/Muscle-Condition-Score-Chart-for-Dogs.pdf
  12. Merck Veterinary Manual. Parameters Used to Assess Body Condition Score (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/parameters-used-to-assess-body-condition-score
  13. Merck Veterinary Manual. Body Condition Score Scales for Dogs and Cats (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/body-condition-score-scales-for-dogs-and-cats
  14. Kittleson MD. Diagnosis of Heart Disease in Animals. Merck Veterinary Manual, Professional Version. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/circulatory-system/diagnosis-of-heart-disease/diagnosis-of-heart-disease-in-animals
  15. Lee S, Chang H, Cho WY, et al. Deep learning-driven automated detection of canine cardiac murmurs via digital wireless stethoscope auscultation. Vet Res Commun. 2026. PMC12956957 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12956957/
  16. Blois S, et al. Understanding Normal and Abnormal Heart Sounds. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/part-2-understanding-normal-and-abnormal-heart-sounds/
  17. Blois S, et al. Thorax. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/thorax/
  18. University of Guelph, VETM 3430 Clinical Medicine I. Procedure for routine physical examination of cattle (PDF). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/app/uploads/sites/52/2020/07/Bovine-Physical-Exam_with-temperature.pdf
  19. Merck Veterinary Manual. Ferrets at a Glance (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/ferrets-at-a-glance
  20. Merck Veterinary Manual. Physiological Data for Guinea Pigs (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/physiological-data-for-guinea-pigs
  21. Harcourt-Brown F. The rabbit consultation and clinical techniques. In: Textbook of Rabbit Medicine. Elsevier; 2002. PMC7158343 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7158343/
  22. Blois S, et al. A Brief Recap of the Client Interview. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/a-brief-recap-of-the-client-interview/
  23. Blois S, et al. Mental Status. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/assessing-mental-status-gait-and-posture/
  24. Blois S, et al. Skin and Haircoat. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/skin-and-haircoat/
  25. Merck Veterinary Manual. Temperature Equivalents and Conversions (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/temperature-equivalents-and-conversions
  26. Lunn KF. Fever of Unknown Origin in Animals. Merck Veterinary Manual, Professional Version. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/metabolic-disorders/fever-of-unknown-origin/fever-of-unknown-origin-in-animals
  27. Constable PD, Hinchcliff KW, Done SH, Grunberg W. General Systemic States. In: Veterinary Medicine. 11th ed. Elsevier; 2017. PMC7195945 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7195945/
  28. Sato Y. Physical Examination of Backyard Poultry. Merck Veterinary Manual, Professional Version. merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/exotic-and-laboratory-animals/backyard-poultry/physical-examination-of-backyard-poultry
  29. American Association of Veterinary State Boards. Veterinary Technician National Examination (VTNE) Content Outline, approved March 2023. aavsb.org (accessed 2026-10-30) aavsb.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/04/AAVSB-2023-Veterinary-Technician-National-Examination-Content-Outline-2.pdf
  30. Quesenberry KE, Orcutt C. Basic Approach to Veterinary Care. In: Ferrets, Rabbits, and Rodents. Elsevier. PMC7152353 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7152353/
  31. Smith VA, Lamb V, McBrearty AR. Comparison of axillary, tympanic membrane and rectal temperature measurement in cats. J Feline Med Surg. 2015;17(12):1028-1034. PMC10816342 pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10816342/
  32. World Small Animal Veterinary Association. Global Nutrition Guidelines and Toolkit. wsava.org (accessed 2026-10-30) wsava.org/global-guidelines/global-nutrition-guidelines/
  33. Merck Veterinary Manual. The Veterinarian's Examination of a Horse with Colic (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/the-veterinarians-examination-of-a-horse-with-colic
  34. Merck Veterinary Manual. Body Condition Scores for Horses (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/body-condition-scores-for-horses
  35. Abood S, Blois S. General Observational (Distance) Examination. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/3-1-general-observational-distance-examination/
  36. Blois S, et al. Peripheral Lymph Nodes. Clinical Medicine 1: Small Animal Clinical Skills Textbook, University of Guelph (Pressbooks, CC BY-NC 4.0). books.lib.uoguelph.ca (accessed 2026-10-30) books.lib.uoguelph.ca/vetm3430/chapter/peripheral-lymph-nodes/
  37. Merck Veterinary Manual. Normal Physiological Values for Dogs (table). merckvetmanual.com (accessed 2026-10-30) merckvetmanual.com/multimedia/table/normal-physiological-values-for-dogs

Spotted an error? Email support@vtneexam.com and we will check it against the sources.